Editor's Note: The following is the final analysis from Jochen Hemleb, historian for the Mallory & Irvine Research Expedition, of the artifacts and information discovered during the May 1999 expedition.

In the December issue of the British climbing magazine High, Jim Curran summed up the current knowledge of the Mallory & Irvine mystery by saying, "A man's body is found at 8100m, 300m above him is an ice-axe. What happened? We don't know." Well, we know a bit more, we can speculate a lot more – and we can speculate with reason.

What do we know?
On May 17, 1999, while descending from an abortive summit attempt, Tap Richards and Jake Norton recovered a 1924 oxygen bottle, which could only have stemmed from the Mallory & Irvine attempt. Found at c. 8480 m (27.820 ft.), some 20m higher and 60m closer horizontally to the First Step than the ice-axe found in 1933, the oxygen bottle marked the lowest altitude Mallory & Irvine must have reached on their final climb.

"Death was most likely caused by a severe puncture wound in the forehead, discovered by Thom Pollard (the only person who saw Mallory's face), during the second search effort on May 16..."

We also know that Mallory died on the descent, as he definitely had fallen from a point below the oxygen bottle location. The fall cannot readily be linked to the ice-axe location, however, as Mallory's injuries were less than those of more recent victims who had fallen all the way from the ridge crest. [Mallory's Body Photographed] Death was most likely caused by a severe puncture wound in the forehead, discovered by Thom Pollard (the only person who saw Mallory's face), during the second search effort on May 16. Those three facts – minimum altitude, fall on descent, cause of death – is all that we know.

The Final Days & A Reconstruction
Mallory & Irvine left Camp IV on the North Col on June 6, 1924, together with eight porters and reached Camp V on the afternoon the same day. Later that afternoon, four porters returned to the North Col with a note from Mallory, saying that there was no wind at Camp V and things looked hopeful. The next day the two climbers and four remaining porters continued their way to Camp VI, the assault camp at 8230 m (27.000 ft.). The returning porters brought down two notes from Mallory, which contain valuable information about what might or might not have happened on summit day:
a) A note to photographer John Noel with the stated intent to start early the next morning in order to either "crossing the rock-band under the pyramid or going up skyline [i.e. moving along the ridge crest] at 8 p.m. [sic, meaning "a.m."]"
b) A note to Noel Odell, who was climbing one day behind in support of the pair, apologizing for the loss of the stove at Camp V and mentioning that they had used "90 atmospheres" of oxygen, i.e. ¾ of a bottle each, for the two days of climbing to Camp VI. From this Mallory concluded that "we'll probably go on two cylinders" to the summit. Mallory also remarked that the oxygen is "a bloody load for climbing" (weight of the apparatus with three cylinders 12.7 kg, 3.6 kg less with two).

From a list of supplies for the summit attempt found on Mallory's body, fresh information can be added to the notes. Firstly, the list mentions a stove and fuel. The loss of the stove at Camp V, sometimes regarded as potentially disastrous for any summit attempt, would therefore have been of consequences for Odell only. It appears unlikely that Mallory & Irvine would have continued their ascent if they could not have counted on another stove present at Camp VI – that from Norton and Somervell's attempt four days earlier.

Secondly, the list notes six additional oxygen cylinders. As Mallory and Irvine had carried three or four cylinders themselves and partly used up one each, the total number of cylinders available to them on summit day could have supplied each climber with the full capacity of three cylinders, i.e. 11 to 12 hours of oxygen.

					"If Odell saw Mallory & Irvine on one of the Steps, it also means that they had stuck to the ridge crest and not opted for one of the traverses along the Yellow Band..."

That Mallory & Irvine intended to have a large quantity of oxygen available on summit day is corroborated by the 1924 expedition account, The Fight for Everest, in which Norton states that they "decided to use practically no oxygen up to Camp VI" and because Camp VI had already been established with tents and bedding, "nearly every available porter could now be used for carrying oxygen cylinders." In addition, the usage of only 3/4 of one bottle by each climber for the two days to Camp VI supports the former intent.

The main question now is: Did Mallory & Irvine use two cylinders because of the weight factor, as suggested in the note to Odell – or did they use more to have the advantage of oxygen for a longer period of time? We don't know the answer yet.

What happened on summit day? We have Mallory's stated intent to "start early to-morrow" - and we have the assumption of a late start because of malfunctioning oxygen sets, suggested by parts of the apparatus found at Camp VI by Odell. We also know that Odell found magnesium flares in the tent and that the 1933 expedition discovered a candle lantern and lever torch at the site, suggesting that Mallory & Irvine had left behind most, perhaps even all of their lighting equipment when departing from Camp VI. The conclusion from this combined information points to a start no sooner than sunrise, which had been at 5.15 a.m. on June 8, 1924.

We have a fair idea of the progress Mallory & Irvine had made during the early stage of the ascent. On Mallory's body we found a list of five numbered oxygen bottles and their corresponding pressures. From a note by 1924 expedition member Geoffrey Bruce, also found among Mallory's possessions, we further know that Mallory had selected a number of oxygen cylinders from a dump at Camp III, which were carried up to the North Col the day Mallory & Irvine's departure – so it appears likely that these were the bottles on the list. All bottles had a reduced filling pressure, which would have made them last 20 minutes (in one case even 40 minutes) less than fully charged bottles (4 h at full flow, 2.2 l/min). One bottle was listed as "No. 9," which corresponds with a stamp and paint mark on the bottle found near the First Step.

Discarding an empty bottle at this point meant that Mallory & Irvine had taken 3 h 40 min to climb from Camp VI to near the First Step, which hints at a respectable and reasonable climbing speed. It also hints at their oxygen sets functioning well. If they had used the lower flow of their apparatus, 1.5 l/min, the same distance would have taken them about 5.5 h.

Are there other interpretations regarding the bottle? If it had been the second bottle Mallory & Irvine had discarded, their sighting above this point and "going strong" would indicate that they were using a third bottle. If they had taken only two bottles, why was the now useless apparatus including pack frame and regulators not abandoned with the bottle? Was the bottle left on the descent? Only if they had decided either to continue carrying the empty apparatus or used a third bottle and if they had turned back before their second bottle had run out.

					"But there is another controversy about Odell's sighting – and it lies within Odell's sighting itself..."

The next time marker for Mallory & Irvine's ascent is Odell's last sighting of the pair at 12.50 p.m. But did he see them? And if so, where did he see them? Odell himself had always been adamant about the first question - but, unfortunately, not about the second. "If ever I was certain of any observation, scientific or otherwise, which I have made upon a mountain, I can claim definitely to have seen Mallory and Irvine" - and several eyewitness have since then confirmed that it is indeed possible to see moving figures over even twice the distance, especially when silhouetted against snow or the sky. If we give Odell credibility, the least we can conclude is that he saw someone – Mallory & Irvine – climbing something on the upper Northeast Ridge. Yet his constant reference to "great rock-step", "prominent rock-step" etc., strongly suggests that he saw them on either the First, Second or Third Step. It appears unlikely that they were on one of the lesser towers below the First Step or between the First and Second Step, which are not needed to be climbed anyway. If Odell saw Mallory & Irvine on one of the Steps, it also means that they had stuck to the ridge crest and not opted for one of the traverses along the Yellow Band. And if Odell saw Mallory & Irvine, he had seen them "going strong" above the point where they had discarded one of their oxygen bottles, which means they had taken at least two.

Where exactly did he see them? In his first two accounts, written between June and November 1924, Odell was entirely sure that he had seen Mallory & Irvine at the Second Step. Even when adding a cryptic "last step but one" to his description, he gives the altitude of the Second Step in this context. His remark also indicates that Odell, a geologist, was aware of a third step-like feature above the Second Step, although the Third Step was not named as such before 1991. Only in the expedition account, published in 1925, doubts had entered his mind and he thought it might had been the First Step where he had seen the pair.

During his summit climb on May 17, 1999, Conrad Anker shed new light on the validity of Odell's sighting by nearly free-climbing the 15-feet crux pitch of the Second Step. He first stated, "I would give it a 5.8 rating at sea level, but up here it feels more like 5.10," but later rated it definitely 5.10 A0 (one point of aid, i.e. stepping on one rung of the Chinese ladder). Although Anker had demonstrated that the crux could be climbed with "certain alacrity," as Odell wrote, there is admittedly a difference in the climbing abilities of Conrad Anker and George Mallory, even if Anker had not been using oxygen. 5.8 would have been at the upper limits of Mallory's capability (but still within), 5.10 beyond. According to Anker's personal opinion, Mallory & Irvine could not have surmounted the Second Step. If you accept Anker's estimation wholeheartedly and at the same time believe that Odell had indeed seen Mallory & Irvine, it could only have been the First Step where he had seen them.

But there is another controversy about Odell's sighting – and it lies within Odell's sighting itself: Odell describes the climbers moving over a snow crest or slope, then surmounting a short rocky section with "alacrity" before emerging on top of the rock-step. This description fits neither of the three routes ever used to surmount or bypass the First Step. And even if they had climbed the crux of the Second Step quickly, the snow patch beneath is comparatively small and due to its northern exposure in the shadows for most of the day – not an obvious place to spot two ascending climbers. Yet Odell's description matches one place exactly: the Third Step.

If we still believe that Mallory & Irvine could have surmounted the Second Step, despite Conrad Anker's personal opinion, then the true controversy about Odell's sighting is not whether he saw Mallory & Irvine at the First or Second Step – but whether he saw them on the Second or Third Step. Odell's diary entry, written no later than four days after the actual event, simply says, "saw M & I nearing the base of the final pyramid." Later he speaks of "a prominent rock-step at a very short distance from the base of the final pyramid."

Both descriptions fit the Second and Third Steps alike, yet not the First – and Andy Politz, the only climber who watched the summit ridge from the vicinity of Odell's viewpoint, is convinced that Odell meant the Third Step. Politz also noted that from Odell's viewpoint the three steps are clearly separated, ruling out any confusion, especially when seeing the "whole summit ridge unveiled," as Odell maintained throughout his accounts.

What speaks mostly against the Third Step is the time factor. If Mallory & Irvine had overcome the crux of the Second Step, it would have taken them considerable time – clearly more than the few minutes Anker took, but probably less than the three hours taken by the Chinese in 1960, who had only little climbing experience but the aid of pitons. In order to have reached the Third Step under these circumstances by 12.50 p.m., it would have required a very early start and therefore the usage of more than two oxygen bottles.

The least we have here is a paradox on in testimony: The opinion of a highly experienced climber that Mallory & Irvine could not have climbed the Second Step in 1924 against a detailed eyewitness account of the time which strongly suggests that they did just that. And if they did, they could have reached the summit – which is a far cry from saying that they did (and no book says so). If Mallory & Irvine had taken only two bottles of oxygen, they would have run out of oxygen and eventually time to make it. If they had taken three bottles, the summit would have been within their reach.

					"Mallory had in all probability used up all his oxygen by the time of the accident (7.5 hours with two bottles, 11 hours with three)..."

From wherever Mallory & Irvine descended, the fatal accident must have happened the same evening or night. Even if the absence of frostbite on the hands is no direct evidence against a bivouac, as visible blackening occurs only one to two days after freezing of the tissue, there is general agreement that Mallory & Irvine's clothing was insufficient for surviving a night out in the open. If Mallory & Irvine had been above the Second Step, it would have been difficult yet not impossible to have made it all the way to the summit and back over the difficult section of the ridge before darkness – as they must have done, because they had fallen from a point northeast and below the First Step. Given the lack of pitons and the reported absence of natural anchors, downclimbing or rappelling the Second Step would have presented a formidable task. The pieces of rope found on Mallory neither completely support nor disprove that he had used part of it to safeguard any pitches for the descent. The Chinese did not report finding any remnants of rope at the Second Step when they climbed it in 1960 – but remember that it took many years and ascents more to find the oxygen bottle, which would have been even more visible.

Mallory & Irvine were roped when the fatal accident occurred. In all probability, the two men had not separated at any stage during the climb. One or both of them fell, the rope broke between them.

Mallory had in all probability used up all his oxygen by the time of the accident (7.5 hours with two bottles, 11 hours with three), as the only piece of his apparatus remaining – the connecting straps and clip between the helmet and oxygen mask – was found tucked away in one of his pockets, indicating he had taken off and discarded his apparatus.

The body was found with his arms stretched out, similar to a self-arrest position. No gloves were found, apart from a piece of a fur-lined wristband. Later analysis of a close-up shot of Mallory's right hand revealed a piece of cotton-like fabric between his fingers, which could have been part of a shredded glove liner.

There is no indication that there was another accident before the fatal one and that Mallory had nursed his injured companion - the DNA analyses of the blood stains on Mallory's clothing are internally consistent and consistent with those of skin samples taken during the first search effort on May 1. They are of the same person.

Mallory's watch, which held much promise, did not give any clues regarding the time of the fatal accident. The main spring was unwound, the watch undamaged by the fall and in working order.

Whether or not Mallory had been the "english dead" found by Wang Hungbao in 1975 is of little meaning to the reconstruction of the events of June 8, 1924, in the context of available evidence - but it is of great meaning in the context of finding new evidence. The search team begun their systematic search from a point where by photographic analysis we had predicted the position of Wang's camp and where the team had found the only piece of 1975 Chinese equipment in the vicinity.

Mallory's body was found considerably farther away from this point than the 20-minute estimation of Wang did suggest, yet timings at altitude can be misleading. More important, though, is that Wang had reported seeing a hole in the cheek of the corpse, while Mallory's body was found lying face down, with his head, arms and upper torso almost completely frozen into the rubble. The team felt that the body had not been moved during the time it had rested on the slope. Therefore the possibility exists that it was Irvine's body Wang had found, the deduced lateral distance from Mallory's body suggesting that Irvine had survived the accident and even dragged himself some distance towards the high camp before succumbing to cold, injuries and/or exhaustion.

So this is the historian's view – to observe and consider, not to judge and value. It is the reader's choice what to make of the pieces of the puzzle, both those which fit and those which don't.

— Jochen Hemmleb, Expedition Historian

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